Book Review – The Silk Roads – A new history of the world – Part 1

I have always been a huge fan of history, and I truly believe in the quote that “History belongs to the victors“. The history told to us over the years, in the form of textbooks or documentaries or even common folklores, are typically from a point of view, mostly from the victors and is mostly biased. There are several books that have tried to narrate histories from different points of views, or at least tried to be less biased than the usual rhetoric. I picked up one such book from a local library, “The Silk Roads – A New history of the world” written by Peter Frankopan. William Dalrymple’s comments “Brilliant and fearless… This is history on a grand scale” and glorified reviews from others easily convinced me to invest time into this book, and it turned out to be one of the best books on History I ever read.

Peter starts with the preface that one of his most prized possessions during childhood was a large map of the world. This resonated so well with me because as a kid, I was also very fascinated by the World map and the Atlas was one of my favorite books. Another interesting point that he points out is about the region between eastern shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea to the Himalayas, now home to states like Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and the countries of the Caucasus, are the true centers of the world geography. It was here that Civilization was born, and many believed Mankind had been created, the Garden of Eden is widely thought to be located in the rich fields between the Tigris and Euphrates, the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia – The rivers of Babylon!

It was a fantastic read, with a great history unfolding at a comfortable pace. Some known stories, and quite a lot of new information to soak in. The book truly deserves a detailed review, for all the efforts the historian author has put in. I jot down my thoughts here, covering 4 different aspects that I found very interesting in this book, trying to summarize them to the best of my ability. Part 1 of this blog is about the great Empires and Sources of Wealth. Part 2 will focus on the other two interesting aspects of Religions and Historic cities. Let’s march on, Part 1!

Great Empires of History

There have been so many great empires that ruled on this earth, especially along the Silk route. Peter brilliantly goes on to chronologically cover the mighty civilizations and the powerful rulers that reigned this geography, uncover their psyche, their way of administration and most importantly how they influenced their people and future civilizations. Lots of learnings for us common folks as well.

• Mesopotamia, region predominantly in modern day Iraq, also included parts of present-day Kuwait, Syria and Turkey, is where the story of civilization begins. The Akkadian empire, the first known empire of the world, had its roots in Mesopotamia, during 23rd century BC. The region forms the “Fertile Crescent” believed to be the very first region, where settling farming emerged. It was also the base for King Hammurabi of Babylon, whose stringent laws of governance were the first to be recorded.

• Persia, modern day Iran had the greatest of all the empires that graced this crucible – the Persians. It was a forward-looking culture at the time, where they would adapt foreign customs if they felt them superior. Darius the great righteously ruled the empire at its territorial peak. Immensely wealthy at the time, they indulged notoriously on extravagant tastes. The nomads from the north posed persistent problems though.

• Greece was led by Alexander the great who took the throne in 336 BC and marched east in search for glory. He conquered Persian empire, in part due to his military brilliance and in part due to his tolerance and respect to local customs. He also paved way for the introduction of ideas and culture from ancient Greece into the east. One interesting point that Peter mentions about Alexander is that he wasn’t a Juvenile thug who led Greek army and destructed eastern empires, as mostly believed; rather he was an able administrator. After occupying the kingdoms of the east, he was able to govern them well.

• Han Dynasty, from China, overcame the Xiongnu (nomadic tribes) active in the Mongolian plateau, and established a silk route from Dunhuang to Kashgar. The rulers expanded the Chinese frontiers further west, reaching a province Xiyu (today’s Xinjiang). This was particularly important as this unlocked the vast space, linked Asia together, cleared the Eurasian steppes tribes and paved the way for the “Silk route” – rightly named in honor of Silk which became an international currency as well as a luxury product.

• Roman Empire came to dominate the western Mediterranean region from a small town in west coast of Italy- Rome. Although it easily annexed other western regions like the Gaul (Modern day France), it truly became an Empire when General Octavius conquered Egypt, a super-rich kingdom at the time. He returned to Rome as its supreme Ruler, got christened to Emperor Augustus. Rome became a place where domination over foreign people and over nature was brutally celebrated, a complete opposite of the other civilizations that reigned before. Perhaps this is where the supremacy of the west, its culture and the race in general slowly took shape, a biased western mindset and tradition, carried forward by the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and eventually the US.

• The Mongols – the rise – The story of rise and fall of this empire has been incredibly narrated by Peter. There was so much more to know about the Mongols, it turned out. To me, and I am sure for most of us, Mongols represent a savage group of people, who were only good at destruction and carnage. What Peter points is that this sheer brutality is not how one builds a great empire – one that Mongols eventually established. He explains their rise was not a result of lack of order, but exactly the opposite – It was ruthless planning, streamlined organization and clear set of strategic objectives to establish the largest land empire in history [At its peak, it covered some 9 million square miles (23 million square km) of territory, making it the largest contiguous land empire in world history]. Temüjin (Genghis Khan) consolidated the Mongol tribe and wreaked havoc into Asia. Ruthlessly setting examples for the cities that didn’t surrender, they conquered cities, one after another, with brutality and fear. What is interesting though was that although resistance was punished brutally, peaceful submission was rewarded. There is a “Game Of thrones” like scene depicted when the Christian army is fighting in Egypt, and they heard news of help coming from a kingdom of heaven, a large army marching from deep inside Asia to help the western knights. Crushing all opposition as they advanced, there were heading to crusader relief, or so they thought. Galloping along though, were the Mongols!

• The Mongols – The rule of land – The story on Mongols was overwhelming for me, and I decided to dedicate few more paragraphs. Few things struck me while I read through the Mongol chapters. First, although they were brutal, they were not savages. The cities they took over actually thrived; Mongols knew how to be great empire-builders: Tolerance and careful administration had to follow up on military might. Some scholars argue that it was the Mongol’s system of government that laid the ground for Russia’s transformation into a full-fledged autocracy – letting a few individuals lord it over the population. Mongols fiercely protected the rule of law, when it came to commercial matters. “China is the safest country and best country for the traveler” – wrote 14th century explorer Ibn Batuta; same view was echoed by Pegolotti who wrote “China is safe country whether day or night” – It’s a little wonder then that Modern China continues to be the safest country (I can vouch this with my firsthand experience while living there!). Another interesting point highlighted is although Genghis Khan is the most popular figure in the Mongol history, it’s his son Ögedei Khan, who deserves much of the credit for the Mongol achievements. It was Ögedei who mounted one of the most stunning attacks in the history of warfare, surpassing even Alexander the great. Entire Russia was conquered, and in 1241 struck into the heart of Europe, defeating the armies of Hungary and Poland, and was about to invade western Europe. At this moment, another “game of thrones” type of scene happened, and the great Khan died! Peter rightly points out that at this moment “Mongols took their foot off the throat of Christian Europe“.
• The Mongols – the fall – Mongols finally fell, in part due to lack of strong leadership, and in part due to rise of fellow nomadic kingdoms. Towards the end, the Khanate was divided into 4 geographical regions; first was the senior line centered in China; second the heirs of Chagathay in central Asia; third the Golden Horde in west, steppes of Russia to central Europe; and fourth the Ilkhanids in Greater Iran (who were subordinates to main branch). Slowly the power of central leadership faded, and the regions got annexed by other kingdoms. As the battle of the nomads, between East Asian Mongols and Central Asian Mamluks, it was the latter that reigned supreme, finally the Mongols had met their match.

• The Mughals: In 1494, Babur, a Timurid prince from Uzbekistan, one of the descendants of Timur, lost Samarkhand to his Uzbek rivals. He then turned his attention and energy towards India. He made himself master of Kabul and then took control of Delhi by expelling the tyrannical Lodi dynasty. He was called a Mughal due to his Mongol lineage (In India, the spelling for Mongol was Mughal). And like the Mongols, he turned out to be a keen city builder. Over the course of 16th century, his son Humayun & grandson Akbar expanded the Mughal Empire. They brought some new ideas, tastes & styles, long favored by the Mongols and the Timurids.

• The Spaniards: Spain & Portugal took up naval expedition and initially had an explorer mindset. But once they got in contact with the new world civilization, this changed to a “conquest” mindset and they used military superiority to completely destroy the local civilizations, their culture & religion. Christopher Columbus, with the discovery of the Americas, shifted Europe’s center of gravity from east to west. Mass genocide followed in the great civilizations of the Americas: Aztecs from Mexico, Incas from Peru, Mayans from south Mexico were barbarically destroyed and colonized. Bartholome Diaz, a writer/friar, documented the atrocities committed by the Spanish on the indigenous people in his work: A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. He wrote “I saw cruelty on a scale no living being has ever seen or expects to see“. Hernan Cortes, the blood thirsty conqueror killed Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler that led to the collapse of the Aztec Empire. Stories of massacres repeated, like in Cuba 1513, villagers who had come to give gifts were ruthlessly killed without any provocation. The nobility and priesthood of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, were massacred during a religious festival. Eventually, the diseases that the Spaniards brought with them like SmallPox, Influenza, measles completely finished the local population, who stood no chance against these new diseases.

• The Portuguese: Vasco Da Gama changed the fortunes of the Portuguese crown when he landed on the shores of Calicut in India, thus finding a new sea route to Asia. Although Zamorin, the ruler of Calicut was initially hesitant to engage with these foreigners, somehow later allowed them to take back loads of spices. Portuguese realized they had struck gold. Having conflicts on who rules which geography, the two Iberian powers came out with a mutual agreement – Everything to the west would belong to Spain, and everything to the east to Portugal. They ruled the world until the internal strife’s (Corruption, Extreme opulence, etc) and external competition (Ottomans and the northern European powers) forced them out. Peter interestingly compares Spain to a lottery ticket winner, one who squanders the wealth as quickly as it was gained.

• Ottoman Empire: In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II led the Ottoman army to capture Constantinople from the Byzantine empire, which became their capital. After taking control of Egypt in 1517, the ottoman empire rose in the eastern mediterranean. Being in the route between the east and west, they were constantly at war with the Portuguese, attacking their naval expeditions, and seizing the rich bounties. In 1560, millions of pounds of Spices made way into Alexandria in Egypt. Sultan Sulayman ruled during 1520-66 and commissioned incredible buildings to be built across the Ottoman world, from the Balkans to North Africa.

• The Dutch: Northern Europe turned to Protestantism, that eventually led to the Union of Utrecht in 1581. This was the foundation for the union of seven provinces, leading to the formation of the Dutch republic. Key to Dutch success was superb ship building skills, innovation in classic designs, leadership in cartography and creation of the east Indies company and West Indies Company, the first ever multinational corporation. They replaced Portuguese in Malaysia, Indonesia & western Africa.

• The British: Meanwhile, another superpower in the making, the British started investing heavily on their Royal Navy. Their new vessels gained reputation for their speed, better handling and formidable militarily. Protestant Britain became sworn enemy of Catholic Spain & Portugal, to the point that they decided to side with the Ottoman Turks. They put the Gutenberg printing press technology to good use and publicized the atrocities of the Spanish and showcasing them as mass murderers and a cruel blood thirsty regime. Eventually, the British did the same by getting into slavery and tyranny. They setup the British East India Company (EIC), and displaced Portuguese from Persian Gulf and Surat in India. They spent 1/5th of national budget on large scale shipbuilding programs. EIC established centers in India, firstly Madras, and then Bombay and Calcutta & fortunes of EIC rose dramatically upwards. India became a one-way ticket to fortune for EIC officials. Opium grown in India was sold to the Chinese in a rising addiction. Robert Clive sent to Calcutta to intervene the attack on the city by the Nawab of Bengal, was granted control of the diwani – the tax. He soon became one of the richest men of the world. Over 2 million pounds, tens of billions in today’s terms went into the purses of EIC employees. British decided to enrich themselves at the cost of millions of people in Bengal who died due to famine, that could have been easily avoided. Eventually, after local productivity reduced due to shortage of workers, EIC went into bankruptcy. To bail them out, heavy taxes were imposed on North America. Boston Tea party led to the declaration of Independence of the USA. The example set by the British on how they treated the colonized subjects forced the North American colony to fight for independence. Eventually the British lost the plot and had to get out of their colonies.

Sources of Wealth

Peter explains beautifully on how the wealth got created during the raids and explorations. Gold, coins and spices come to mind easily, but there were several interesting sources that made a country and geography “rich”:

• Food Grains: Early civilizations relied completely on the basic necessity – Food. Productive land with access to plenty of water became most sought after. Areas like Mesopotamia called the “Fertile crescent” formed the basis for civilization. Flood waters of River Nile produced prodigious harvests of grains. Agriculture and rich harvest formed the initial source of wealth. It is no secret that source of wealth easily invited attacks and raids from outside. Food was, is and will continue to be the main source of wealth of any nation. Peter interestingly goes on to argue that “The failure of the land to generate wheat in the anticipated quantities was a direct cause of the Holocaust” – Hitler needed to reduce the mouths to feed.
• Silk: Well, Silk is obvious. The road and this book is named after this commodity. It was used alongside coins & grains to pay the troops. It was a reliable currency, as food grains could get rotten, coins were useless outside specific geographies. Raw silk became regularly used as currency and it made the producers and traders rich.
• Animals & their produces: Horses were a vital part of the economy. Horses bred on the Steppes were more popular, as they were bigger and well-fed. Arabian/Persian horses were paid high by the Indian princes. Furs were highly priced for the warmth and status they bestowed their owners. In some parts of the steppe, pelts were used interchangeably with currency. Skins, pelts & furs served an obvious purpose in an unmonetized economy.
• Slaves: Viking Rus from Gotland (Sweden’s largest Island) ruthlessly enslaved local populations and transported them south. Their captives “Slavs” eventually formed the word “slaves”. Slavery became vital part of Viking society and important part of its economy. The slaves were in great demands in Baghdad and other cities in Asia. Mostly from south, and also from sub-Saharan Africa, and elsewhere. One commentator told there was no equal to Turkish slaves, due to their courage and resourcefulness. Interestingly, sale of slaves paid for the imports that began to flood into EU in the 9th century. African slave trade got exploded in 15th century, majorly run by the Portuguese. This transformed the fortunes of western society.
• Spices: Vasco Da Gama returned with Cinnamon, Cloves, Ginger, Nutmeg and pepper, making Portuguese nobility rich beyond their imagination. The spices were found to be useful for all sorts of medical reasons as well, in addition to the flavor they added to the diet.
• Silver: Europe struck “Silver” at the mine at Potosi, Bolivia, accounting for more than half of global production for over a century. In 17th century China, the ratio of silver to gold was an incredible 6:1. Traders would buy silver from Japan and sell it to China to make easy profits, quite unthinkable in today’s terms. Peter writes that although the influx of silver greatly encouraged arts, over time this caused price inflation, and hence serious economic and political crisis.
• Crude Oil – The Black Gold: Peter weaves a nice story here. In 1882, William Knox D’Arcy, a british lawyer based in Australia, struck “gold” at Ironstone Mountain, Australia, through his investments. Upon his return to Britain, he was contacted by Antoine Kitabagi, a well-connected official in the Persian administration. After striking gold in Australia, Kitabgi offered him the chance to do so again; this time though it was “Black Gold”. Having read the geological reports and personally surveyed the country, he decided to invest in the exploration. Shah signed the agreement that awarded “a special and exclusive privilege to search for, obtain, exploit, develop, render suitable for trade, carry away and sell natural gas, petroleum, asphalt and ozokerite throughout the whole extend of the Persian Empire for a term of 60 years“. There was nothing to show for the money that was poured in to search of the black gold for long time though. After getting desperate, he invited potential investors. In 1905, the British Navy, very interested in the oil that could secure the future of the Royal Navy for years to come, brokered a deal with a Scottish oil company. It still took another 3 years, and finally on 28 May 1908, the team struck oil. The Anglo-Persian Oil company, the vehicle behind this, eventually became British Petroleum.

There is Part 2 coming next, but I truly hope I have piqued your interest and curiosity in the history and geography of the center of the world. I whole heartedly urge you to read this amazing book. History belongs to the historians and history buffs!